Anyone who has ever been to school knows how unequal the system can be. This inequality in resources, power, and status often leads to conflict. This sociological concept is most commonly referred to as conflict theory, and it can be observed in almost any established societal structure. In an article on the topic, Charlotte Nickerson, a Harvard University Research Assistant pursuing a degree in History with a focus on urbanism and mental health, explains that at its core, conflict theory emphasizes that societies struggle between different groups for access to limited sources, and this can be seen through historical events and changes over time. These different groups are characterized by their interests, status, and capabilities to acquire resources for themselves. It is through these differences that conflict theory bases its claims that our instincts lead us toward conflict.
Conflict theory is an established sociological concept with a storied history. It has continuously been developed and adapted over the years, and it is still applicable to contemporary conflicts. Even in schools, no matter your level of education, it is easy to notice the disparity between economic classes. For example, students with low socioeconomic status will likely work to make ends meet while also juggling their everyday tasks from school. While some can qualify for scholarships, many still carry financial debt just to finish their education.Â
On the other hand, upper-class students commonly have disposable income and abundant resources that enhance productivity and allow them to have more spare time. Since they’re financially secure, they don’t need to work, and they have the means to overcome obstacles that would be detrimental to someone less fortunate. They might have access to private tutoring to help them through certain challenging subjects. And they’re unlikely to worry about unexpected costs, such as healthcare, emergency repairs, or rent increases. They may even be able to leverage their family’s networking, making entry into desirable internships more immediate.Â
Those in between are considered middle-class students. They have enough income to get by, but not enough to be considered wealthy. Their family income bracket might be too high to qualify for grants or scholarships but not high enough that they do not worry about finances. Thus, even though middle-class students come from moderate-income households, thanks to family businesses or multiple income earners in the family, they may still have student loans or opt to work.Â
With that in mind, you can easily identify the dynamics of social groups in a school setting. Going further through this guide will also give you a better understanding of conflict theory and all of its complexities. To start with, it is first necessary to understand how this sociological concept came to be.
Historical Background
The cynical perspective of the world observed in conflict theory can be traced back to the works of Nicollo Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes. However, a book published by Dr. Teal Rothschild, a sociology professor at Roger Williams University, reveals that conflict theory as a sociological concept did not originate from them. Instead, they were established by 19th-century philosophers Karl Marx and Max Weber. Interestingly, their approaches towards the theory differed. Â
Karl Marx introduced his conflict theory as a perspective that sees society to be in a constant state of conflict. He believed that social interactions will inevitably lead to conflict between the involved parties and that these conflicts are necessary for societal changes to occur. Given the fact that Marx also birthed dialectical materialism, Marx’s conflict theory also concentrated on the materialistic exploitation that happens between social classes in capitalistic societies.
A few years later, Max Weber argued against Marx’s tenets. According to his version, conflict does not necessarily arise only from social class structures. Thus, Weber’s take on conflict theory included the emotional and political aspects of power struggles, which now involve ethnicity and social identities. This version of the theory would become the more influential of the two in modern society.
Since then, various forms of conflict theories have been developed by philosophers, the most prominent being critical theory, feminist theory, critical race theory, and realistic conflict theory. These theories either broadened the application of existing principles in conflict theory or used them to focus on a singular topic.
In an article by Robin Celikates and Jeffrey Flynn, two associate professors of political and social philosophy, critical theory was indicated to have been developed by German philosophers of the Frankfurt School in the 1930s, particularly Max Horkheimer. It was described as the expansion of conflict theory towards engagement with sociopolitical movements. As its name suggests, critical theorists aim to criticize social issues that perpetuate inequality and deal with them by presenting rational goals to counteract them.Â
In a 2021 article written by Janel George, a civil rights attorney and policy adviser, it was stated that critical race theory was developed by Derrick Bell and other American scholars back in the 1970s. Born from their critical analysis of racial dynamics, the theory aimed to recognize elements of society that impact the experiences of people of color. Since it transcends the commonly used black-and-white profiling regarding racial inequality, many branches of critical race theory have been developed to cater to specific ethnicities.Â
Moving closer to the modern era, the prevalence of gender-based inequalities led to the development of feminist theory by Janet Saltzman Chafetz during the late 1970s. Her model intended to explain the factors that promoted gender inequality, as well as provide ideas on how society could mitigate them. Along with critical race theory, the usage of sociological principles to bring about change assisted the general public’s understanding of sociology, which is now referred to as public sociology.Â
In an attempt to narrow down conflict theory specifically on small intergroup conflicts, Muzafer Sherif developed realistic conflict theory. The primary difference between the two concepts is the scope of the conflict and the individuals involved. Unlike the prominence of social classes in conflict theory, realistic conflict theory concentrates on the desire of different groups over the same resources regardless of the inequalities that may be present.
Core Principles of Conflict Theory
Limited resources and the unending cycle of conflict are the pillars that support the ideas of conflict theory. Through its lenses, struggle, inequality, and competition are all inherent features of society. It is a phenomenon where resources given to the underprivileged are determined by those in power.
The theory by itself is a foil to another sociological concept called a structural-functional theory. Unlike conflict theory, functionalism accepts that all of the structural components and institutions we have in society are essential to the needs of every individual. Thus, capitalism is promoted in this perspective due to its role as an efficient system that feeds the economy of a society.
Having said that, a capitalistic society is bound to have social classes. The divide between those with power and those who do not will always exist when one side controls the means of production. For conflict theorists, the education system that you are in is a glaring case of this social inequality. For them, it is an established societal structure that aims to further aggravate the disparities between social classes and ethnicities.
As an example, poorer students have fewer resources, fewer opportunities, and worse living conditions compared to students with money. Meanwhile, students with enough resources to hire tutors, buy academic books, and study without financial pressure, are further rewarded by the system. In these scenarios, those who have power will always stay in power as they have the assets to put themselves in a better position later on in their lives.
Major Components of Conflict Theory
As mentioned earlier, conflict theory stems from the supposed human nature to compete for limited resources. In turn, this competition creates two social classes: the dominant bourgeoisie with their means of resource acquisition and the working class proletariat who have to struggle just to get access to necessary resources.
For Marx, conflict theory is centered around the capitalistic exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie. They impose power over the working class through law, coercion, tradition, and generally whatever means they have to force their will. Marx developed this ideology as a direct contrast to functionalist theories, which promoted the cooperation and indispensability of societal institutions.
Since the bourgeoisie controls the means of production, the proletariat is left to work for them in an attempt to acquire resources for themselves. However, whatever is paid to the workers is less than the value of what they produce. This difference in value provides profit to the bourgeoisie and gives them the power to maintain their status. Furthermore, laws are put in place and institutions are established with systems that inherently favor the wealthy.
In the eyes of Marx, these institutions are simply established to maintain the power dynamic between the social classes. This is supported by some modern studies, one of which is the work of Dr. Sonia Omer and Dr. Sadia Jabeen on the inequality between private and public educational institutions in 2016. According to the two sociology professors, institutions such as the school you are in perpetuate competition for limited resources allowing the upper class to maintain the status quo, thus leaving fewer opportunities to the remaining population.
As such, capitalist societies are inherently more likely to create conflict within their social classes. Over time, these conflicts pile up and will force the proletariat to resort to revolution. Because of this, Marx believed that a capitalistic society would inevitably lead itself towards destruction.
Applications of Conflict Theory
In sociology, conflict theory is applied to explain the power dynamic between different kinds of groups. Analysis through the perspective of conflict theory can also be applied to other disciplines, although most are commonly associated with politics, finance, and economics.Â
One example of this is a study published in 2024 by Irina Zherebkina, a professor of Theory of Culture and Philosophy of Science and the director of the Kharkiv Center for Gender Studies. Her study detailed the contradiction between solutions proposed by feminist theorists, such as herself, regarding the conflict between Russia and Ukraine.
The researchers observed that feminist responses varied, with some favoring their surrender to Russia over the preservation of Ukraine’s democracy. The study also emphasized that an anti-militarist feminist approach, while improbable, is necessary for the achievement of the latter.
In another instance, an economics professor named Robert Rowthorn published his research about the role of conflict in inflation back in 1977. In his study, a model was used to depict the flow of income from the workers to the owners whenever there is unforeseen inflation. His findings showed that the greater the conflict over distribution, the higher the rate of inflation. This economic model eventually became known as the conflict theory of inflation.
The very same researcher revisited the study in 2024 to further develop the ideas he previously introduced. He also used this opportunity to review three recent journal articles that aligned with his outlook on conflict theory in inflation. This time, he concluded in his reviews and observations on the cost of living crisis that modern companies make use of their power to maintain their profits and push the burden of higher world prices toward consumers.
Critical theory is often used nowadays as a political ideology by modern-day social justice activists, as shown in a 2021 study by Dr. Bradley Campbell on the approach of activists toward social justice and sociology. In his journal article, the sociology professor from California State University argued that critical theory alone leads to ineffective efforts at reform.
Results of his study revealed that awareness against microaggressions is now normalized, with schools and corporations even providing awareness workshops. This abundance of assumptions and claims that are taken as facts, even without proper evidence, is now more common due to the popularity of critical theory.
Additionally, the incomplete and incorrect understanding of sociological theories by activists ended up being harmful instead of beneficial. Their irresponsibility towards understanding the concepts they based their beliefs on led to distorted realities. This restrictive focus on critical theory as an approach toward social justice actively hindered their capability to create more effective resolutions.
Conflict theory has also been used to address conflicts over educational policies. In 2021, Dr. Joseph Ferrare and Dr. Kate Phillippo conducted an analysis using twelve recent cases of conflicts in the P-16 education system of the United States. The results of their study showed the successful utilization of extended forms of conflict theories to offer feasible solutions to policymakers and researchers regarding technological growth in education.
The study also reintroduced the usage of conflict theory in the U.S. despite being previously labeled as a perspective that is too reductive. This highlights one of the many critiques thrown toward conflict theory as a whole.
Criticisms and Limitations
Historically, the main criticism of the theory was its ignorance of the possibility of social stability. It completely focuses on the negatives in society and neglects positive societal interactions such as cooperation and integration. The perspective itself denies the capabilities of social groups to work together, maintain order, and reach peaceful resolutions.
Another criticism lobbied against the theory is its intense emphasis on financial factors. This criticism is commonly used against Marx’s version of the theory specifically. From its perspective, other experiences that a human being normally goes through are nonexistent. This includes culture, personal values, and any other sources of conflict that are not related to the economy or social classes.
As previously mentioned, the role of institutions in conflict theory is on the side of maintaining the cycle of conflict in society. However, functionalists argue that this viewpoint disregards their necessity in society regarding their contribution towards stability. From the perspective of conflict theorists, the role of institutions in society is extremely reductive compared to how complex they are in reality.
Lastly, there is a lack of consideration for human autonomy and personal freedom from the perspective of conflict theory. Its intense focus on societal structure and systemic inequalities devalues the capability of every single individual to consciously follow or disregard the established norm.
Conclusion
Conflict theory is the perpetual cycle of conflict caused by our continuous competition for resources. It can be observed in nearly every single phenomenon in which people are involved. From your point of view as a student the application of conflict theory may vary in scale. It can be something as small as an academic rivalry or something more significant, such as the quality of education you receive in comparison to other universities.
One thing that should never be forgotten when applying the tenets of sociological concepts, such as the conflict theory, is that they are not absolute. You are free to choose whatever kind of perspective you want to view the world in. Just remember to keep an open mind and entertain other outlooks, and it will lead you to answers you never expected to have.
